Уважаемые гости! Мы рады видеть вас здесь. Но настоятельно просим не размещать рекламу по тематике, не имеющей отношения к заявленной здесь. Наш форум узкоспециализированный и не нуждается в активной раскрутке и рекламе. Тем не менее, мы с удовольствием разместим ссылки по схожей тематике. Надеемся на понимание, Администраторы.
Отправлено: 28.02.09 14:59. Заголовок: Андрей Ну лучше всег..
Андрей Ну лучше всего посмотреть портрет в мраморе - я говорю о бюсте работы Бернини. Трехмерное изображение всегда лучше отражает, и этот бюст признан самой точным изображением короля. А из портретов - работы Ле Брана, или как его принято писать по-русски Ле Брюна. Например этот:
Отправлено: 11.06.09 10:18. Заголовок: Я вот чего не понима..
Я вот чего не понимаю...в каком возрасте нарисован портрет Ле Брюна? Где-то я читала, что в 1661 году, кажется. А как же он на нем в парике?! Ведь он был точно не брюнетом .
Отправлено: 11.06.09 10:20. Заголовок: Меня тут еще один.....
Меня тут еще один...хехе...интимный вопрос заинтересовал . Как чулки на дамах той эпохи держались?))) Судя по фильмам, они были до чуть выше колен. Были у меня такие чулки на ленточках-завязках. Ходить в них было мукой, все время упорно стремились сползти вниз. Они же вроде не носили пояса для чулок?
Отправлено: 11.06.09 13:59. Заголовок: Amelie de la Mer пиш..
Amelie de la Mer пишет:
цитата:
Я вот чего не понимаю...в каком возрасте нарисован портрет Ле Брюна? Где-то я читала, что в 1661 году, кажется. А как же он на нем в парике?! Ведь он был точно не брюнетом
А короля часто пишут с более темными волосами. Полагаю, что дело в освещениею - у Ле Брана оно там явно недостаточное. отсюда и волосы каждутся темнее. А год верно - 1661.
Amelie de la Mer пишет:
цитата:
Меня тут еще один...хехе...интимный вопрос заинтересовал . Как чулки на дамах той эпохи держались?))) Судя по фильмам, они были до чуть выше колен. Были у меня такие чулки на ленточках-завязках. Ходить в них было мукой, все время упорно стремились сползти вниз. Они же вроде не носили пояса для чулок?
На подвязках, конечно. На мужчинах подвязки видны, думаю у дам они были более кокетливыми, но принцип тот же.
Отправлено: 12.06.09 19:01. Заголовок: Amelie de la Mer пиш..
Amelie de la Mer пишет:
цитата:
Единственно, сомневаюсь я, что это было очень удобно...резинок же в те времена не было. И, конечно, зимой, когда ветер дует...дааа...
Я дваже слышала. что у короля остался след от подвязок и судя по тону врача это не такой уж нонсенс. Насчет зимы - ну это Франция, там не так холодно. а юбок несколько. они очень тяжелые, их ветром не раздуешь.
ean-Baptiste Colbert and Louis XIV Mises Daily: Thursday, July 08, 2010 by Murray N. Rothbard
[This article is excerpted from An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought, vol. 1, Economic Thought Before Adam Smith
Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619–83) was no scholar or theorist, but heknew with firm conviction what ideas he liked, and these were themercantilist notions that had filled the air in France and the rest ofEurope for generations. Colbert's accomplishment, while functioning asthe Sun King's economic czar, was to put this compendium ofmercantilist ideas into effect on a grand scale. Colbert was convincedthat the ideas were good, just, and correct, and he fervently believedthat any opponent was completely wrong, either ignorant or biased bypersonal motives and special pleading. His opponents, such as businessmen who preferred competition or freeexchange, were narrow, shortsighted, and selfish; only he,Jean-Baptiste Colbert, had the long-run interests of the nation and thenation-state at heart. Merchants, he repeatedly declared, were littlemen with only "little private interests." For example, they often preferred liberty to compete with eachother, whereas it is in the "public interest" and the "good of thestate" to see to it that all products are uniform in makeup andquality. Colbert was speaking here, of course, of the joint interestsof the state — its rulers and bureaucracy — and of cartelists, all ofwhose private interests were in fact at stake. But although the myth ofthe "public" was, as usual, a mask for particular individuals andgroups, their interests were indeed far grander than those of "little"individual merchants.
Отправлено: 03.10.10 20:25. Заголовок: The mercantilist ide..
The mercantilist ideas of Colbert were familiar: encouraging andkeeping bullion in the country so that it can flow into the coffers ofthe state; prohibiting the export of bullion; cartelizing throughcompulsory high standards of quality; subsidizing of exports; andrestriction on imports until France became self-sufficient. Colbert'sideas on taxation were those of almost every minister of financeeverywhere, except they were more clearly and far more candidlyexpressed: "The art of taxation," he said, "consists in so plucking thegoose as to obtain the largest amount of feathers with the least amountof hissing." There is no more dramatic encapsulation of the inherentlyconflicting interests of the people versus the state. From thepoint of view of the state and its rulers, the people are but a giantgoose to be plucked as efficaciously as possible. Furthermore, that swelling the coffers of the king and the state wasthe simple reason for the otherwise silly "bullionist" doctrines of themercantilists can be seen in this revealing statement of Colbert's tothe king:
The universal rule of finances should be always towatch, and use every care, and all the authority of Your Majesty, toattract money into the kingdom, to spread it out into all the provincesso as to pay their taxes.
Like other mercantilists, Colbert warmly embraced the "Montaigne fallacy"about trade. Trade was war and conflict. The total amount of trade inthe world, the total number of ships, the total production ofmanufacturing, was fixed. One nation could only improve its trade, orshipping, or manufactures, by depriving some other country of thisfixed quantum. One nation's gain must be another's loss. Colbertgloried in the fact that French trade was growing, allegedly at theexpense of misery inflicted on other nations. As Colbert wrote to KingLouis XIV in 1669, "This state is flourishing not only in itself, butalso by the want which it has inflicted upon all the neighboringstates." "The art of taxation consists in soplucking the goose as to obtain the largest amount of feathers with theleast amount of hissing." – Jean-Baptiste Colbert
Отправлено: 03.10.10 20:26. Заголовок: In reality, trade an..
In reality, trade and conquest are not akin, but are diametricopposites. Each party to every exchange benefits, whether the exchangeis between nationals of the same country or of different countries.Political boundaries have nothing to do with the economic gain fromtrade and markets. In exchange, one man's gain is only accomplished bycontributing to the gain of someone else; just as both "nation" (i.e.,people living in certain countries or any other geographical area)mutually benefit from trade between them. Colbert's theories, however,fitted in with deep hostility toward all foreigners, particularly suchprosperous nations as England and Holland. Like other mercantilists, Colbert detested the idleness of others,and sought to force them into working for the nation and state. Allvagabonds must be driven out of the country or put to forced labor asgalley slaves. Holidays should be reduced, so that people would workharder. Colbert was unusual among mercantilists in giving special care tobringing the intellectual and artistic life of the nation under statecontrol. The object was to make sure that art and intellect served toglorify the king and his works. An enormous amount of money was pouredinto palaces and chateaux for the king, the mightiest of which was approximately 40 million livres on the great, isolated palace at Versailles. During Colbert's term, some 80 million livres were spent onroyal edifices. Moreover, Colbert mobilized artists and intellectualsinto academies, and supported them by grants and government projects.The French Academy, created shortly before as an uninfluentialsemiprivate group, was nationalized by Colbert and put in charge of theFrench language. The Academy of Painting and Sculpture, founded underMazarin and given a legal monopoly of art instruction, was reinforcedby Colbert, who imposed strict regulations on these artists so thattheir work would be proper and orderly and always in service to theking. Colbert founded an academy of architecture to work on royalbuildings and to inculcate the proper architectural principles. Neither were music nor the theater safe from the all-encompassingrule of Colbert. Colbert preferred the Italian opera form to the Frenchballet, and so doomed the latter to the benefit of the Italian import.In 1659, the Abbé Perrin produced the first French opera, and so adecade later, Colbert conferred upon the abbé a monopoly of all rightsto present musical performances. Perrin, however, was a poor manager,and he went bankrupt. While in a debtor's prison, Perrin sold hismonopoly right to Jean Batiste Lulli, an Italian musician and composer.Lulli was given the right to form the Royal Academy of Music, andLulli's permission was necessary for any further musical performancewith more than two instruments. Similarly, Colbert created a theatrical monopoly. In 1673, he forcedtwo existing theatres to unite: when a third troupe was later forced tojoin them, the Comédie française was thereby formed in 1680. The Comédie françaisewas given a monopoly of all dramatic performances in Paris, wassubjected to tight state regulation and control, and aided by statefunds.
Отправлено: 03.10.10 20:27. Заголовок: With regulation and ..
With regulation and monopoly came subsidy and subvention. Pensions,grants, no-show appointments as valets of the king, lucrativeappointments as artists to the king, exemptions from taxes or from thewrath of creditors, all poured out into the arts. Similarly, for thetheater, writers, scientists, historians, philosophers, mathematiciansand essayists. All manner of largesse poured out to them from the statetrough. It was subvention that put to shame any contemporary nationalendowment for the humanities or national science foundation. Theoutpouring truly subverted any sort of spirit of independence thatFrench intellectuals might have attained. The mind of a whole nationhad been corrupted into the service of the state. "Colbert's ideas on taxation were thoseof almost every minister of finance everywhere, except they were moreclearly and far more candidly expressed." What manner of man was this, then, this grand bureaucrat who scornedthe interests of mere individuals and merchants as petty and narrow,who presumed always to speak and act for the "national" and even"public" interest? Jean-Baptiste Colbert was born in Reims, into a merchant family.His father, Nicolas, purchased a minor government office in Paris; hismore influential uncle, Odart Colbert, was a successfulmerchant-banker. Jean-Baptiste was an uneducated young man, but hisuncle knew a banker for Cardinal Mazarin. More importantly, one ofOdart's sons married the sister of an important government official,Michel Le Tellier. Uncle Odart got young Colbert a job working for LeTellier, who had just been appointed to the post of secretary of statefor military affairs. Jean-Baptiste's lifelong service in the topFrench bureaucracy had begun. After seven years in this post, Colbertmarried Marie Charon, after obtaining for her father, a wealthyfinancial official, an important tax exemption. Soon Colbert became a counselor of state, and then one of the topaides of Cardinal Mazarin. Soon after Mazarin's death, Colbert rose tobecome virtual economic czar of Louis XIV, keeping this status untilhis death. Cold, humorless, hard and implacable, "a man of marble" as he wascalled by a contemporary, Jean-Baptiste Colbert yet had the wit toengage in boundless flattery and demeaning personal service to hisroyal patron. Thus Colbert wrote to Louis on the occasion of a militaryvictory, "One must, Sire, remain in silent wonder, and thank God everyday for having caused us to be born in the reign of a king like YourMajesty." And no service to the Sun King was too demeaning. Colbert searchedfor the king's missing swans, supplied Louis with his favorite oranges,arranged for the birth of the king's illegitimate children, and boughtjewels for mistresses on the king's behalf. Colbert's personalphilosophy was best summed up in his advice to his beloved son,Seignelay, on how to get ahead in the world. He told his son that "thechief end that he should set himself is to make himself agreeable tothe king, he should work with great industry, during his whole life toknow well what might be agreeable to His Majesty." Colbert was well rewarded for his life of hard work and abjectsycophancy in the service of the king. Apparently only the interests ofindividual merchants and citizens were narrow and "petty." Colbert hadlittle difficulty in identifying the lucrative feathering of his ownnest with the "public interest," national glory, and the common weal. Astream of offices, benefices, pensions and grants streamed into hiscoffers from the ever-grateful king. In addition, Colbert receivedspecial bonuses or "gratifications" from the king; thus, in one order,in February 1679, Colbert received a gratification of no less than400,000 livres. The overall sum poured into Colbert's cofferswas immense, including lands, and bribes for subsidies and exemptionsfrom grateful lobbyists and economic interests. All in all, he amassedat least 10 million livres, notable to be sure, but not the enormous extent of Cardinal Mazarin's boodle as prime minister. Colbert also did extremely well by his extensive family. Brothers,cousins, sons, and daughters of Colbert were showered with favors, andbecame bishops, ambassadors, military commanders, intendants,and abbesses of leading convents. The Colbert family certainly did wellby doing "good" on behalf of the sovereign and the "public interest" ofFrance. After Colbert's death in 1683, his successors under Louis XIV developed and strengthened the policy of Colbertisme.Protective tariffs were greatly increased, imports of various goodslimited to specific ports, quality regulations strengthened, andinnovations hobbled for the protection of the industrial andoccupational status quo. Colbertisme was frozen into the French political economy. Murray N. Rothbard (1926–1995) wasdean of the Austrian School. He was an economist, economic historian,and libertarian political philosopher.
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